Hindu history is not limited to the history of India only; therefore, we should understand the history of the world with more emphasis on the history of Asia to understand the history of Hinduism. In this article, we will try to shed light on the facts about the history of Hinduism.

History can be defined as a systematic record in chronological order of important men and events in the past, which is supplied only by written documents or things found that would give sufficient evidence about those events.

The prehistoric period was when the art of writing was unknown to man, and he led a primitive life. We can confidently discuss the prehistoric period with the help of carbon dating and things found at the excavation sites.

The period between the prehistoric and historic periods is known as the protohistoric period. The Indus Valley Civilization belongs to the protohistoric period. The Vedic period in India is also regarded as proto-historic because no written records have yet been discovered. The Vedic knowledge was imparted from ear to ear and thus stored in memory and treasured in the heart of meditation. A lot of research needs to be done on the history of Hinduism.

Hindu History before Indus Valley Civilization:

This period is also known as the prehistory period, with no concept of religion at all. We will still refer to them as Hindus in this article for convenience. This period dates back to well before 10000 B.C. The Paleolithic men were the earliest inhabitants of India, according to available evidence.

The Neolithic age lasted till about 4000 B.C. Neolithic people were more cultured and progressive than their predecessors, such as the Paleolithic and Mesolithic. Neolithic men used to bury as well as cremate dead bodies, which resembles the cremation practice still followed by Hindus. Hunting and fishing were their main occupations. Many drawings showing stags, crocodiles, other animals, and hunters have been discovered from various sites across India. They are believed to have worshipped ancestral spirits. Stone worship was a common practice. They also used to worship a phallus, which resembles the Shiva Linga worship. Animal sacrifice was a common practice. They had an understanding of fire, pottery, agriculture, and the domestication of animals. Some tribes of India, like Gonds, Bhils, Satals, etc., are believed to have descended from Neolithic people.

The Chalcolithic age lasted from 4000 B.C. to 2000 B.C. The Chalcolithic people are believed to have used metal, such as copper, as weapons and accessories. They knew how to make swords and other weapons of metal. They were better at farming than their predecessors.

Indus Valley Civilization:

The discovery of Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa in 1922 gave rock-solid evidence to the world that Hindu culture is at least as old as that of Egypt, Mesopotamia, etc. Before that, Indian history was not given very much importance.

The period of the Indus Valley Civilization could be between 2500-3500 B.C. or even older.

The Indus Valley Civilization was spread over approximately 840,000 square miles, covering Sind, Punjab, Kathiawar, and other areas. The towns were planned with modern amenities, like dwelling houses, public buildings, public baths, irrigation and drainage systems, and an excellent water supply.

The people during that time used to worship Devi, Shiva, Pashupati, Trimukha (three-headed god), and Yogisvara or Mahayogi. Besides, standard practices include Yoni worship, animal worship, tree worship, fire worship, water worship, naga worship, and sun worship. People used to bury dead bodies.

History of Hinduism during the Vedic period:

The theory of Aryans invading India is controversial. Some historians believe that this theory was propagated by the British to lessen the importance of Hindu culture and the Vedas, but most scholars believe that the original home of Aryans was Central Asia. A lot of research needs to be done in this regard. Aryans expanded their reign to Afghanistan, Uttar Pradesh, and the Ganges basin.

The Vedic period was perhaps the best period for the Hindu Religion. During the Vedic period, there was no rigid caste system. The profession of the caste was not the criterion for getting married. Caste in the Vedic period meant only class.

“A poet am I, my father is a physician, My mother is a grinder of corn.”

The above lines are from the Rigveda (IX: 112)

A joint family was a common practice. No child marriages were allowed. Monogamy was prevalent, although there are some references to polygamy. Women were allowed to participate in social and religious functions. There were no restrictions on women. There was no Sati practice during the Vedic age. The position of a widow was good. The standard of morality was high. The status of women was high, but unfortunately, it deteriorated over time.

Many Gods and Goddesses are mentioned in the Rig Veda, which later developed into Vedic mythology. Vedic Hindus used to worship deities like the Sun, Indra, Vayu, Varun, Agni, Plants, rivers, etc. With the advent of modern science, nowadays, it is believed that the Vedas are science in encrypted forms. The concept of magnetism, the origin of the universe, solar winds, etc., are discussed mystically.

Rigveda is the oldest scripture known to mankind and is still in use.

History of Hinduism during the later Vedic period:

Hinduism became a little bit complicated during this period. The caste system became more rigid, with Brahmins becoming more important. The simple rituals became complicated. This resulted in the supremacy of Brahmin priests. The age of marriage was also lowered during this period. The Aryans established 16 Mahajanapadas during this period. Agriculture became the most important occupation. The society was divided into four main castes. Brahmins and Kshatriyas gain more importance than the remaining Varnas. Upanishads and other Vedic literature, like Sriti and Smriti, developed during this period. Lord Shiva remained the most popular deity along with Prajapati. Lord Vishnu, Trimurthi, and other Vedic deities were also popular.

The rise of Jainism and Buddhism:

An increase in the rigidity of the caste system and the supremacy of Brahmin priests gave rise to different agitations. Initially, caste was not decided by birth, but by the quality, but now, Brahmins started the caste system by birth. This naturally created tensions between the Brahmins and the people of other Varnas. It is interesting to note that both Lord Mahavir and Gautam Buddha were warriors. They actually revolted against the tyranny of the Brahmins. Buddhism helped to spread Indian culture beyond India to countries like Sri Lanka, China, Japan, etc. Buddhism became more popular than Jainism.

Hindu History during the Pre-Mauryan period:

Before the invasion of Alexander and the rule of the Maurya dynasty, most of India was captured by 16 Mahajanapadas. Those were as follows:

Anga, Magadha, Vriji, Kosala, Malla, Vatsa, Kuru, Panchala, Matsya, Surasena, Kasi, Avanti, Asmaka, Chedi, Gandhara, and Kamboja. These 16 states were big and powerful.

Bimbisara became the king of Magadha in 543 B.C. He accepted the policy of expansion. It is said that he had 500 wives. He used those relations to expand his kingdom. He conquered the prominent kingdom of Anga. He was believed to be a follower of Jainism but also supported Buddhism. It is believed that his son, Ajatsatru, killed him, while Jains believe that he committed suicide out of fear that Ajatsatru would kill him (A movie, Amrapali, was made on the life of Ajatsatru). In this era, Jainism and Buddhism were on the plus side.

The original capital of Magadha was Rajgir, but Ajatshatru built a new capital, Pataliputra (Patna). Ajatshatru defeated the association of 36 republics called Vajji, led by Lichchavis. Ajatshatru patronized Buddhism extensively. After a few generations, Magadha came under the rule of Mahapadma Nanda, a son of a Shudra woman. This started the lines of Nandas, who were supposed to be half-Shudras. His successor, Dhanananda, one of the Nine Nandas, was a despotic ruler. He was the ruler of Magadha when Alexander invaded India in 327-326 B.C.

The Persian and Greek invasion of India:

During 518-515 B.C. Northern Punjab was part of the Persian Empire. Persians adopted the principles of secularism and did not force their culture upon Hindus.

Alexander’s Invasion of India:

Alexander the Great was the son of the king of Macedon, Philip. He invaded India during 327-326 B.C. After conquering the Persians, he advanced towards the East. He entered India through the Khyber Pass with an army of about 30,000 soldiers. He not only received no opposition but was also welcomed by Ambhi of Taxila. He then defeated different small and big kingdoms of India like Astes, Porras, Kathaioi, and some hill tribes. But his journey was not easy. Indians offered stiff resistance. This resulted in the refusal of his army to march further, and hence he returned to Greece and died two years after reaching there. His invasion created a beautiful fusion of Indian and Greek art.

Hindu History During the Mauryan Dynasty:

Chandragupta Maurya founded the Mauryan Dynasty. Because of Dhana Nanda’s inactivity, Arya Chanakya was upset with him. Therefore, Dhana Nanda expelled him from the Magadha Empire. With the help of Chandragupta, Arya Chanakya built groups of rebels and started revolting in the areas Alexander had conquered. After the death of Alexander, the hold of the Greeks weakened, and the patriotic army of Chandragupta Maurya became more powerful. He defeated the Greeks and then conquered states and kingdoms in North India. Then, he attacked Magadha and killed Dhana Nanda, a despotic ruler. Thus, he established the Mauryan Dynasty in Magadha.

Chandragupta adopted an expansion policy and brought different North Indian kingdoms under his rule. He penetrated South India also. Chandragupta Maurya was succeeded by Bindusara, who was an able king. After his death, Ashoka became the king of the Mauryan Dynasty. During the war of Kalinga, Ashoka had to kill 100,000 soldiers of Kalinga and capture 150,000 soldiers. This violence changed his mind and made him decide to renounce any further wars. He came closer to Buddhism and accepted it.

Chandragupta was a follower of Jainism, and his successor, Ashoka, was a follower of Buddhism. However, they were both very secular and allowed everybody to enjoy their religion. Most people in India at that time were Hindus only and continued to worship different gods like Vishnu, Shiva, Kubera, Skanda, Laxmi, etc.

History of Hinduism after the Mauryas:

Brihatratha, the last king of the Mauryan dynasty, was killed by Pushyamitra Sunga in 185 B.C. The Sunga dynasty ruled for the next 112 years. Then, the last king of the Sunga dynasty, Devabhut, was killed by his minister Vasudev Kanva. The Kanva dynasty ended 45 years after Satavahanas defeated the last Kanva king, but Satavahanas did not establish their rule in the north.

Buddhism and Jainism declined during this period as the Sunga and Kanva dynasties patronized Brahminism. During this transition period, foreign tribes like the Sakas, Parthians, and the Kushanas established their presence in some parts of North India. During the post-Mauryan period, famous books like Manavdharma Sastra, Charaksamhita, Rasaratnakar, and Arthashastra were composed. Of the six main philosophical streams, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, and Samkhya were written during this period.

After the fall of the Mauryan Empire, many small kingdoms came into existence. The Satavahanas were the most powerful amongst them. They established their power from Sanchi in the north, Konkan in the south, and the sea in the west and east. They believed to have ruled for about 450 years (235 B.C. to 215 A.D.). The caste system was prevalent during their reign, though it was not rigid. Inter-caste marriages were common. The women also enjoyed high status in society. The Satavahanas followed the Vedic religion and performed Vedic sacrifices. The famous deities included Indra, Sun, Moon, Vishnu, Krishna, Shiva, Ganesha, and Pashupati. They also patronized Buddhism and Jainism and supported them wholeheartedly.

Gupta Dynasty:

Guptas were the rulers of Magadha. The following were the kings of the Gupta Dynasty:

1. Chandragupta I (319-335 A.D.)

2. Samudragupta (335-375 A.D.)

3. Chandragupta II (380-415 A.D.)

4. Kumargupta (415-455 A.D.)

5. Skandagupta (455-467 A.D.)

6. Vishnugupta (500-570 A.D.)

The Gupta era is known as the golden era of Hinduism. Samudragupta is known as the “Napoleon of India.”  Hinduism was revived during this period as the kings themselves patronized it. Guptas constructed beautiful temples and popularized idol worship. Buddhism declined significantly during this period. More restrictions were put upon women, polygamy was practiced, and the practice of Sati caught its roots during this period.

Vakatakas, Pallavas, and Chalukyas:

These three dynasties were from the southern part of India. They were contemporaries of the Gupta dynasty and played a significant role in strengthening Hinduism in South India.

The kingdoms of the Vakatakas, Pallavas, and Chalukyas also patronized Hinduism. Shaiva and Vaishnavas, the two sects of Hinduism, also became powerful during their reign. Buddhism continued to lose its glory. These three kingdoms built many temples and sculptures. Some of these are the famous Ajanta caves, Mahabalipuram, Aihole, and Badami.

Hinduism during the Chola Empire:

The Chola kingdom was a very ancient empire whose reference can be found in the Mahabharata. It was in the southern part of India. Rajrajeshwara revived the Chola Empire. He ruled from 945 to 1014 A.D. He constructed many big Shiva Temples during his reign.

The other kings of the Chola Empire were:

Rajendra I (1014-1044 A.D.)

Rajadhiraja I (1044-1052 A.D.)

Rajendra II (1052-1063 A.D.)

Virarajendra I (1063-1070 A.D.)

Kulo Hung (1070-1118 A.D.)

The last king of the Chola Empire was Rajendra III, who was defeated in 1258 A.D. by the Pandya, and this ended the Chola Empire.

The Chola emperors patronized Hinduism, especially two sects, viz. Bhagvatism and Saivism. Many prominent temples were built during their reign. Jainism and Buddhism also flourished. The women enjoyed a good social status compared to North India. Monogamy was a general practice, but rich people practiced polygamy and had many wives.

Invasion by Muhammad Ghazni:

At the time of the invasion by Ghazni, the Hindu Shahi dynasty was an important kingdom. Other small Rajput states were fighting amongst themselves. Raja Jaipal was the ruler of the region from Kashmir to Multan and from Sirhind to Langhani. At the beginning of the 11th century, Muhammad of Ghazni attacked India. Jaipal was defeated, and he committed suicide after that. His son, Anandpal, organized a united front of Rajput chiefs but could not defeat Ghazni. Ghazni made about 17 invasions after that and looted India. He desecrated and destroyed the Somnath temple in Saurashtra, Gujarat.

Ghori Dynasty:

Muhammad Ghori was a powerful Central Asian king who attacked India after defeating Ghaznavi. In 1191, he was defeated by Prithviraj Chauhan at the first battle of Tarai, but Prithviraj set Ghori free, which was his biggest mistake. Muhammad Ghori attacked again in 1192 and defeated Prithviraj Chauhan. Ghori did not set Prithviraj free, but he beheaded him. Then, Ghori attacked Gujarat but was defeated by Rana Bhimdev II of Anhilwada. He then conquered the rich plains of the Ganges and beyond. He died in 1206, and Qutb-ud-Din Aibak, a Turkish slave, captured the throne of Delhi. Ghori destroyed hundreds of Hindu temples and converted many to Islam during this period.

The following dynasties occupied the throne of Delhi after Ghori.

Slave Dynasty (1206-1290 A.D.)

Khilji Dynasty (1290-1316 A.D.)

Tughlaq Dynasty (1300-1414 A.D.)

Sayyad Dynasty (1414-1451 A.D.)

Lodi Dynasty (1451-1526 A.D.)

The condition for all non-Muslims in India at this time was pathetic. Spreading Islam was one of the main aims of the emperors of all these dynasties. Many beautiful Hindu temples were desecrated and destroyed during this timeframe. All the non-Muslims had to pay Jizya and were not given high positions in the government service. They were regarded as Zimmi or second-class citizens. No wonder Hinduism deteriorated during this time. The conditions for women worsened during this time. Rajput women burnt themselves in ‘Jauhar’ when their husbands were defeated. Many Hindu women were raped and the women were very insecure. Evil practices like infanticide and child marriages prevailed during this time.

Invasion of Babar:

In 1526, Babar defeated Ibrahim Lodi in the first battle of Panipat because of his advanced warfare techniques and assistance from rebellions against the Delhi Sultanate. After that, he defeated the united front of Rajput chiefs led by Rana Sangram in the battle of Kanwah in 1527. Then, he attacked the Afghan forces of Doab and established his kingdom from the foot of the Himalayas to Gwalior in the South. He died in 1530 after a short illness. He was succeeded by Humayun, who became the king of Delhi. Sher Khan defeated Humayun at Kanoj and became the king of the Delhi Sultanate in 1540. After that, he wandered over many places and got married to Hamida Banu Begum. In 1542, Akbar was born. The Shah of Iran sheltered him.

Sur Dynasty:

Sher Khan established the Sur dynasty, but could not enjoy it as he died in an accidental explosion of a shell after five years. But he established a vast empire over the entire North India except Kashmir, Gujarat, and Assam.

Vijayanagar Empire:

The empire of Vijayanagar is considered one of the most significant Hindu kingdoms in the past. It is still remembered for its glorious contribution to Hinduism. The emperors built many beautiful temples of Hindu deities and saints. Some were Vitthalswamy temple, Hazar Ramaswamy, Krishnaswamy, Bhuvaneshwari, Achutraya, etc. The art and paintings also flourished during this period. Krishna Devraya and Ramraya were famous kings of the Vijayanagar Empire. The empire was at its peak during the reign of Krishna Devraya. Entire South India was under his rule at that time.

Many dynasties ruled the Vijayanagar Empire. Hampi was the capital city of the empire. Harihara I and Bukka of the Sangama dynasty are considered the founders of the Vijayanagar Empire. The Vijayanagar Hindu Kingdom was founded by Harihara and Bukka in 1336.

I. Sangama Dynasty:

1. Harihara I (1336-1356)

2. Bukka I (1356-1377)

3. Harihara II (1377-1404)

4. Devraya I and his sons (1406-1424)

5. Devraya II (1424-1446)

6. Mallikarjuna and Virupaksha III (1446-1485)

II. Saluva Dynasty

1. Saluva Narasimha (1485-1491)

2. Narasa Nayaka and successors (1491-1503)

III. Taluva Dynasty

1. Vira Narasimha (1503-1509)

2. Krishna Deva Raya (1509-1529)

3. Achyuta Raya (1529-1542)

4. Sadasiva Raya and Ramaraya (1543-1570)

IV. Aravidu Dynasty:

1. Tirumala (1570-1578)

2. Sriranga II and Venkatapati (1579-1616)

The Mughal Dynasty:

After the death of Sher Khan, the Sur dynasty was destabilized. Therefore, Humayun, with the help of Shah Tahmasp of Persia, captured Lahore, but unfortunately, he died in 1556. After that, Bahram Khan helped Akbar to defeat the Sur dynasty led by a Hindu general, Himu, in 1556. This battle is known as the Second Battle of Panipat. Thus, Akbar became the king of Delhi. Bahram Khan consolidated the Mughal dynasty by capturing Agra, Gwalior, and Jonpur. Akbar did not have complete control over his kingdom because of Bahram Khan. Therefore, he had a conflict with him. Bahram Khan rebelled but was defeated. Akbar asked him to go to Mecca, but he was murdered on the way in 1561.

Akbar consolidated the empire by bringing many areas under his control. His kingdom spanned through the Himalayas to the Narmada and from the Hindukush to the Brahmaputra. He adopted a friendship policy with the Rajputs. Raja Bhar Mal of Jaipur gave his daughter, Jodha, in marriage to the Mughal king. He persuaded other Rajput kings and brought them into the service of Akbar. Rana Pratap Singh from Mewar did not surrender and fought almost single-handedly for 25 years against the Mughals. In the battle of Haldighat in June 1576, Rana Pratap was defeated but did not surrender. He continued his fight until his last breath.

Akbar adopted the policy of secularism and abolished Jizya on non-Muslims. His wife, Jodha, was a Hindu, and he knew that a policy of tolerance would benefit all. He founded a new religion called Din Ilahi. However, after the death of Akbar, his successors discontinued his policy. Shah Jahan reimposed Jizya on non-Hindus. His successor, Aurangzeb, was the height of cruelty and religious fanaticism. He converted thousands of Hindus to Islam either by force or by luring them. Actually, this policy was followed by all the Muslim kings in India except Akbar. Aurangzeb devastated the Kashi Vishweshwar Temple and threw the Shivlingam in a well nearby. He killed the king of Marathas, Sambhaji Raje, on declining to convert to Islam. The same was done with Guru Tegh Bahadur Singh. This period was the worst-known period in Hindu history. Thousands of Hindus were killed and/or converted to Islam. Thousands of Hindu women were raped and kidnapped. In Maharashtra, people still refer to the reign of the Mughals as the darkest period. It is a symbol of injustice for them. Aurangzeb would have definitely Islamized India if the Maratha king Shivaji Maharaj had not been there.

Maratha Kingdom:

The Mughal dynasty was strong in the North, but in the Deccan, there were Nijamshah, Adilshah, and Qutubshah, who shared a large territory of the Deccan. Mughals also had some presence in the Deccan and wanted to expand their territory. Marathas were mere servants of the Sultanates and not the rulers. King Shivaji founded the Maratha kingdom, and the Peshwas expanded it to North India.

On February 19, 1630, Shivaji was born on the Shivneri fort in the Pune district of Maharashtra. His father, Shahaji Bhosale, was a knight in Nijamshahi and Adilshahi afterward. As Shivaji grew up, he found a Hindu kingdom in the Deccan. Nijamshahi was over by the time Shivaji grew up. So, he targeted Adilshahi first and kept good relations with the Mughals, as the Mughals were mighty. With the help of guerrilla warfare, Shivaji founded a small kingdom in Deccan known as Swarajya (self-rule). He weakened the Adilshahi and then started attacking the Mughals. He was defeated by a Mughal knight, Mirjaraje Jaisingh, at one point. He was forced to sign a treaty with the Mughals by which he had to give more than half of his kingdom to the Mughals, but soon Shivaji bounced back and got his kingdom back from the Mughals and snatched other territories of the Mughals as well as Adilshah. He was coronated in 1674 and officially proclaimed himself the king of Marathas.

Shivaji died suddenly in 1680 after expanding his kingdom to Karnataka. After Shivaji, his son, Sambhaji, became the king of the Maratha kingdom. Taking this opportunity, Aurangzeb came to Deccan with a large army to curb the Marathas. King Sambhaji fought successfully for 9 years with Auranjeb but was captured alive by Aurangzeb in an unfortunate incident. He was brutally killed by Aurangzeb afterward. After the death of Sambhaji, Aurangzeb captured Sambhaji’s wife and son and kept them in prison. Sambhaji’s stepbrother, Rajaram, somehow escaped and went to Karnataka and became the chief of the Maratha kingdom. He kept fighting with the Mughals with the help of the Maratha knights Santaji Ghorpade and Dhanaji Jadhav. After the death of Rajaram, his wife, Tarabai, kept fighting with the Mughals. After the death of Aurangzeb, King Sambhaji’s son, Shahu, was released from prison. As Shahu was the true heir of the empire, many Maratha knights joined him and defeated Tarabai to gain power over the Maratha empire. Chhatrapati Shahu appointed Balaji Vishwanath as Peshwa of the Maratha Empire.

Peshwai:  During the reign of King Shivaji and King Sambhaji, Peshwas were only the ministers and used to assist the king in administration, but when Balaji Vishwanath became Peshwa of the Maratha dynasty, he was given many rights, and hence, Peshwas became de facto leaders of the Marathas. But Chhatrapati Shahu ensured that the Peshwas would remain under his control and not overthrow him. During the reign of the Peshwas, the Maratha kingdom was extended to many parts of North India, and the Marathas became the supreme power in India. They were considered undefeatable until the Third Battle of Panipat between Abdali and the Marathas, in which Abdali defeated them. This severely weakened the Maratha dynasty, resulting in the loosening of their hold on India. This helped the British to expand their power in India.

Following is a list of Peshwas of the Maratha kingdom:

1. Balaji Vishwanath – When he became the Peshwa, the Marathas were not in excellent condition to expand their territories. He consolidated the Maratha kingdom and laid a good foundation for his future generations.
2. Bajirao I – After his father’s death, Bajirao I or Thorale Bajirao became the Peshwa. He was the ablest Peshwa in history. He never lost a single battle. He strengthened the Maratha kingdom and expanded its borders. Because of Bajirao I, the Marathas became the supreme power in India.
3. Balaji Bajirao (Nanasaheb Peshwa) – After Bajirao I, Nanasaheb became the Peshwa. He further consolidated the Maratha empire and added to the glory of the Marathas, but after the defeat in Panipat, Nanasaheb fell ill and died.
4. Madhavrao I – He was another great Peshwa, but could not live long due to illness. He consolidated the Maratha empire after the defeat of Panipat.
5. Narayanrao – He was the only Peshwa who was murdered while he was a Peshwa.
6. Raghunathrao – He was accused of the murder of Narayanrao. He could not hold long, as Narayanrao’s wife was pregnant at the time of his death and gave birth to a son who was the true heir.
7. Madhavrao II (Sawaai Madhav Rao) – He died in an accident in Shaniwarwada.
8. Bajirao II – The worst of all Peshwas. It was during his reign that the Peshwai, as well as the Maratha Empire, came to an end. In 1817, he was defeated by the British and forced to retire and go to Bithoor.

King Chhatrasal:  Taking inspiration from Shivaji Maharaj, Chhatrasal revolted against Aurangzeb and founded his kingdom in Bundelkhand. Peshwa Bajirao’s wife, Mastani, was his daughter. He died in December 1731.

Tipu Sultan: After the death of his father, Haider Ali, in 1782, Tipu became the new Sultan of Mysore. He was also known as the tiger of Mysore. Tip Sultan died in a war against the British in 1799. He was infamous for some of his anti-Hindu activities.